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Predictive learning as the basis of the testing effect

Haopeng Chen (UGent) , Cathy Hauspie (UGent) , Kate Ergo, Cristian Buc Calderon and Tom Verguts (UGent)
(2025) COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY. 3(1).
Author
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Abstract
A prominent learning phenomenon is the testing effect, meaning that testing enhances retention more than studying. Emergent frameworks propose fundamental (Hebbian and predictive) learning principles as its basis. Predictive learning posits that learning occurs based on the contrast (error) between a prediction and the feedback on that prediction (prediction error). Here, we propose that in testing (but not studying) scenarios, participants predict potential answers, and its contrast with the subsequent feedback yields a prediction error, which facilitates testing-based learning. To investigate this, we developed an associative memory network incorporating Hebbian and/or predictive learning, together with an experimental design where human participants studied or tested English-Swahili word pairs followed by recognition. Three behavioral experiments (N = 80, 81, 62) showed robust testing effects when feedback was provided. Model fitting (of 10 different models) suggested that only models incorporating predictive learning can account for the breadth of data associated with the testing effect. Our data and model suggest that predictive learning underlies the testing effect.
Keywords
DOPAMINE NEURONS, EPISODIC MEMORY, HIGH-CONFIDENCE, RETRIEVAL, RECALL, ERRORS, RETENTION, BENEFITS, FMRI

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MLA
Chen, Haopeng, et al. “Predictive Learning as the Basis of the Testing Effect.” COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY, vol. 3, no. 1, 2025, doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00200-1.
APA
Chen, H., Hauspie, C., Ergo, K., Buc Calderon, C., & Verguts, T. (2025). Predictive learning as the basis of the testing effect. COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-025-00200-1
Chicago author-date
Chen, Haopeng, Cathy Hauspie, Kate Ergo, Cristian Buc Calderon, and Tom Verguts. 2025. “Predictive Learning as the Basis of the Testing Effect.” COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY 3 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-025-00200-1.
Chicago author-date (all authors)
Chen, Haopeng, Cathy Hauspie, Kate Ergo, Cristian Buc Calderon, and Tom Verguts. 2025. “Predictive Learning as the Basis of the Testing Effect.” COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY 3 (1). doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00200-1.
Vancouver
1.
Chen H, Hauspie C, Ergo K, Buc Calderon C, Verguts T. Predictive learning as the basis of the testing effect. COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY. 2025;3(1).
IEEE
[1]
H. Chen, C. Hauspie, K. Ergo, C. Buc Calderon, and T. Verguts, “Predictive learning as the basis of the testing effect,” COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY, vol. 3, no. 1, 2025.
@article{01JK8KCDH8B4ZMEFEG2VRH2PS4,
  abstract     = {{A prominent learning phenomenon is the testing effect, meaning that testing enhances retention more than studying. Emergent frameworks propose fundamental (Hebbian and predictive) learning principles as its basis. Predictive learning posits that learning occurs based on the contrast (error) between a prediction and the feedback on that prediction (prediction error). Here, we propose that in testing (but not studying) scenarios, participants predict potential answers, and its contrast with the subsequent feedback yields a prediction error, which facilitates testing-based learning. To investigate this, we developed an associative memory network incorporating Hebbian and/or predictive learning, together with an experimental design where human participants studied or tested English-Swahili word pairs followed by recognition. Three behavioral experiments (N = 80, 81, 62) showed robust testing effects when feedback was provided. Model fitting (of 10 different models) suggested that only models incorporating predictive learning can account for the breadth of data associated with the testing effect. Our data and model suggest that predictive learning underlies the testing effect.}},
  articleno    = {{18}},
  author       = {{Chen, Haopeng and Hauspie, Cathy and Ergo, Kate and Buc Calderon, Cristian and Verguts, Tom}},
  issn         = {{2731-9121}},
  journal      = {{COMMUNICATIONS PSYCHOLOGY}},
  keywords     = {{DOPAMINE NEURONS,EPISODIC MEMORY,HIGH-CONFIDENCE,RETRIEVAL,RECALL,ERRORS,RETENTION,BENEFITS,FMRI}},
  language     = {{eng}},
  number       = {{1}},
  pages        = {{13}},
  title        = {{Predictive learning as the basis of the testing effect}},
  url          = {{http://doi.org/10.1038/s44271-025-00200-1}},
  volume       = {{3}},
  year         = {{2025}},
}
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